Concept and Image of Divine Wisdom in the Old Testament (1)

By Alexey Knyazev

Divine Wisdom (Hebrew – חוכם; Greek – σοφία) is the main theme of didactic biblical writing, which for this reason has received the name chomic in modern biblical scholarship. Reflecting on Wisdom, the authors of the book Wisdom speak of the latter in a dual sense: theological and moral-practical, meaning sometimes a divine property, sometimes a human quality, in a certain sense bestowed from above – in other words, sometimes Wisdom itself, sometimes participation in it or in its works. In some places, however, Wisdom unexpectedly assumes the features of a certain intelligent essence and even hypostasis, which is especially characteristic in chapters 8-9 of the book. Proverbs, Chapter 24 of the book. Wisdom of Sirach, chapters 7-8 of the book. Wisdom of Solomon and, in part, Chapter 28 of the Book of Job. It is this image of the Old Testament hypostatic Wisdom that has more than once attracted the attention of exegetes and theologians. The disputes that were waged in the Arian era over the interpretation of these places are well known.[1] The significance that these places received, on the one hand, in Russian iconography,[2] and on the other hand, among a group of Russian religious thinkers of the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries, in particular Vladimir Solovyov, Father Pavel Florensky and Father Sergei Bulgakov, is also well known. Therefore, the question of what Divine Wisdom is and what exactly the Old Testament Scripture meant by this image is of particular interest to both the Russian theologian and the enlightened Russian church reader.

However, to this day the question of Divine Wisdom has not received its exegetical solution. The Fathers of the Church, who often enough referred to the passages speaking of the hypostatic Wisdom, were relatively little concerned, however, with a systematic interpretation of the book of Wisdom.[3] Scholastic theology, as well as the aforementioned founders of the sophiological trend in Russian theology, proceeded in their interpretation of these passages from a completely incorrect premise: they believed that the ancient Old Testament authors actually had that perfect New Testament knowledge that became possible only after the descent into the world of the Spirit of Truth, in the sacrament of Pentecost.[4] It should not be forgotten that even in its highest prophetic illuminations the Old Testament remained only a shadow and a divination,[5] and therefore even in them that knowledge of the secrets of the intra-Trinitarian life remained inaccessible to him, which they have tried and still try to find in the above-cited texts about the hypostatic Wisdom. Therefore, at the present time, when biblical science has done so much to reveal the true literal meaning of the Old Testament Scriptures, the question of the Divine Wisdom in the Old Testament must be completely reconsidered and resolved, first of all, precisely on the basis of the texts themselves: to establish how the divinely inspired authors of the book of Wisdom themselves understood Wisdom and what significance they themselves attached to its hypostatic image. The present essay, which by its size does not claim to be a comprehensive treatment of the problem of Divine Wisdom in all its completeness and scope, aims to show those basic milestones that modern biblical science and theology allow to be identified in resolving the questions of the origin and meaning of the Old Testament Divine Wisdom – Hochma – Sophia.

1

In addition to this, it is now known that in its moral, and even in its religious-practical aspect, Wisdom was not the exclusive privilege of only God’s chosen Israel. Even the Bible, when praising the wisdom of Solomon, compares it with the wisdom of the sons of the East and even gives the names of the most famous Eastern sages (1 Kings 4:30-31). Job’s friends undoubtedly also bear the names of once illustrious representatives of this ancient non-Israelite wisdom. The prophets of the Exile and before seem to hint that wisdom was a special glory of the sons of Edom (Jer. 49:7; Obad. 1:8). Modern archaeological discoveries have uncovered literary monuments of ancient Eastern wisdom, two of which are particularly remarkable: the Sayings of Ahijah, a Babylonian work of the 6th century B.C., discovered on the island of Elephatina, on the Nile, in 1913, and the Egyptian book The Teachings of Amenemope, discovered among papyri in the British Museum, which dates back to the 3rd century B.C. and was published in 1924.[6] Later we will have occasion to return to the parallelism that exists between these monuments and some of the biblical wisdom books.

It should also be noted that the concept of wisdom – “hochma” (חכמה) existed in Israel long before the emergence of the wisdom books there. The latter appeared only in the post-exilic era.[7] The term hochma occurs in texts from previous periods in a slightly different sense from that which became inherent in it in the classical era of Wisdom. In them it denotes: the art of the master (Ex. 28:3; 31:6), the skill and ability of the administrator (Gen. 41:39; 16:19; 34:9), etc., i.e., all that we now mean by the concept of competence or technical perfection. We will further point out that in these same writings the concept of wisdom includes knowledge – in particular in the field of natural science, as can be seen in the characterization of Solomon’s wisdom contained in 1 Kings 4:29-33. Wisdom is also the ability to speak in proverbs, subtlety of mind and even cunning (2 Kings 14:2 ff.; Judg. 9:7-15; 1 Kings 3:11-28). And since Ex. 7:11 calls the Egyptian magi wise men, it can be assumed that in Israel the concept of wisdom once included magic. All this leads us to the conclusion that in Israel the bearers of Wisdom were once all those who constituted the cultural elite of the nation. However, as the comparison of ancient Israelite wisdom with the wisdom of the neighbors of the chosen people shows, these wise men are representatives not of the religious, but of the secular, not yet “churched” culture of Israel.

In this respect, it is particularly significant in the ancient East that there was a huge number of wise men in the immediate royal entourage and among the royal officials in general. The extremely wise writings of the ancient Eastern peoples abounded with prescriptions for wise royal rule and the rules of wise behavior in the presence of the king. As for Israel, the Old Testament historical and prophetic books show more and more the increasingly frequent role of the wise men as royal advisors (see, for example, Isa. 3:1-4). And if the Israelite prophets had conflicts with the wise men (hakamim), this happened precisely when the latter, acting as political advisors, supported the kings in their purely human political passions, and the people in their purely earthly aspirations (Isa. 5:21; 29:14; Jer. 8:8-9; 9:23). However, as the Benedictine Duesberg emphasizes in his work on the Israeli hakamim,[8] it is quite clear that – as a special class and a special ministry – the wise men arose in connection with the institution of monarchy. The Israeli monarchy, like all ancient monarchies, was a unifier of a large number of tribes, clans and families, which it transformed into a state and a nation. In order to fulfill this task, it needed the assistance of the bureaucratic apparatus, which would help it in the central state administration and in its local maintenance. Thus, a special class of royal people was formed, which was indicated by the prophet Samuel at the time of the establishment of the monarchy (1 Sam. 8:11-12). By force of the natural order, these royal people gradually turned into a kind of caste, with their own traditions and their own experience, transmitted from generation to generation. This experience, in turn, assumed a kind of wisdom in the sense of skills, knowledge or techniques. It was expressed in the art of governing people, strengthening royal power, and thereby building one’s own career. It was in this category of hakamim that that observation and that knowledge of human psychology were particularly developed, which subsequently became inherent in all classical chokhmic thought.[9]

The connection of ancient wisdom with monarchy explains how the latter, being initially purely secular, gradually became adorned in religious tones in Israel. In which, of course, the influence of the prophets is evident. Moreover, in Israel the monarchy has always had a religious character. The king of Israel, who at first was simply a military leader, grew up to be God’s anointed, the son of Yahweh (Ps. 2:6-7; 109:1). The decisive factor for this was the Deuteronomic reform inspired by these same prophets (2 Kings 22-23), which radically changed all customs and views in Israel.[10] The court hakamim gradually came to the realization that far from life experience, but above all the fear of the Lord was the beginning of Wisdom. Finally, however, they transferred the initially completely non-religious Wisdom to the religious path with the catastrophe of 586 BC, together with the Babylonian captivity that followed. In this catastrophe, not only all of Israel’s state expectations perished, but also its entire statehood in general: after the captivity, Israel, reduced to Jerusalem and its surroundings, was reborn within the framework of the vast Persian and then Hellenic empires. Having briefly gained national independence in the period of the Maccabees, it finally lost it in the Roman era. It is perfectly understandable that under such circumstances those who had pondered over state experience and had endeavored to work out rules for the wise conduct of state affairs and for the appeasement of earthly kings, deprived of a state, had passed on to pondering over the laws by which the very destinies of states and of individual human personalities are built, and had begun to ponder over how to prove themselves righteous before the author of these destinies – the Heavenly King, God. In Israel, religious, and therefore in the authentic sense of the word, chochmic thought was born.

2

The first monument of this thought and the writing inextricably linked to it is the book of Proverbs. This book undoubtedly partly contains very ancient material dating back to the era of the great wise Israelite king. Biblical scholars believe that the book received its final edition after the captivity and attribute its composition to 350 BC.[11] The book is clearly of a compilation nature – it consists of several collections of aphorisms and individual reflections – from quatrains to chapters of about thirty verses. In many respects, in its content, the book of Proverbs bears the features of ancient Israelite and even Eastern wisdom. First of all, this is the purely practical emphasis in its teaching: the book gives rules of life morality both for the individual and, one might say, for representatives of all classes in society: farmers, artisans, merchants, judges, officials. The book pays special attention to the latter – the section from 22:17 to 24:22, for example, can be directly characterized as a desk book of the exemplary royal official.[12] The book also says a lot about royal power – the section that is inscribed as the words of Lemuel (31:1-9) is specially dedicated to it. In addition, the book of Proverbs also contains material in obvious connection with the wisdom of other ancient peoples – neighbors of Israel. Thus, Prov. 22:17-23:9 is an obvious parallel to the Egyptian wisdom of Amenemope, and the words of Lemuel mentioned above and the words of Agur (30:1-14) probably reflect the wisdom of the Hakamim of the Ishmaelite tribe of Massa, mentioned in Gen. 25:14.[13] However, the Book of Proverbs is not a reproduction of ancient extra-religious wisdom: one of the main points of its teaching is the interpretation in the light of the fear of Yahweh (1:7, etc.) of the accumulated experience of previous generations of sages. This is also one of the reasons for its entry into the canon.[14]

However, the Book of Proverbs does not only shed the light of revealed religion on the often extra-religious experience of life. It also speaks of it exclusively from the perspective of retribution. It professes faith in God’s omnipotence and justice – it sees in God a defender of the righteous and the wronged (22:23; 23:11; 25:22, etc.). However, since, on its level, this is possibly the most Old Testament of all wisdom books, it knows nothing about the secret of immortality,[15] and therefore expects righteous retribution from God, Who in this very earthly life sends the righteous happiness, prosperity and longevity, and to the wicked – respectively all kinds of troubles and premature death.

However, the book of Proverbs is particularly remarkable in that in it we find an attempt at theology of Divine Wisdom. This book is the first to attribute hypostatic features to the Deities Wisdom. Both are found in the first part of the book (chapters 1-9), which is the most contemporary from a literary point of view, the most theological and, by all indications, the latest in its time of writing. It is possible that it belongs to the editor of the book of Proverbs himself. In any case, it is a summary of the entire teaching of the book. That is why everything that this part says about Wisdom must be understood in connection with this teaching.

The main place of Divine Wisdom in the book of Proverbs is made up of chapters 8 and 9. The very name Hochmoth, which Divine Wisdom receives in these chapters, is particularly indicative – similar to the names of God Elohim and to the characteristic of the book. Proverbs Kedoshim (9:10; 30:3), it stands in the pluralis majestatis [plural for exaltation] and is a testimony to the undoubted belonging of Wisdom to the world of the Divine. However, can this be a question of any of the Divine Persons, different from the Person Who is revealed throughout sacred history as Yahweh – the God of Israel?

Such an assumption is absolutely impossible – the environment in which the book of Proverbs arose was strictly monotheistic. It adopts within itself and with all logical consistency implements in all its views the basic principle of Deuteronomy: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (Deut. 6:4). Therefore, the image of the hypostatic Wisdom is a mystery to modern exegetes. Biblical scholarship has not yet given it any satisfactory solution.[16] They have tried to connect Wisdom either with the Hellenic Logos or with various Egyptian and Babylonian deities, who had Wisdom as their main attribute. They have also wanted to find parallels among the personification of individual qualities or properties, and generally abstract concepts, found in ancient Eastern thought.[17] Besides the fact that none of these solutions has received universal recognition, all these comparisons and searches for parallels do not benefit us in the least. Whatever Wisdom has been compared to, the only important thing is this original meaning that the divinely inspired author of the first book of Wisdom at the time of its composition brought to this image. Proverbs 8:22 defines Wisdom as the beginning of God’s ways. The beginning – רֵאשִׁית (“reshith”) – can have the meaning of either a chronological beginning or a criterion, an internal premise. However much this second meaning is required here, the first one corresponds more to the whole context in 8:22-31, showing that Wisdom is the first in time of God’s creations. This confirms the poetic description of the origin of the world in verses 23-31, as well as the indication in verses 22-23 of the moment of Wisdom’s creation.[18] That in Chapter 8 of the book of Proverbs the origin of Wisdom is thought of more as a creation is also shown by the wording of verses 22, 23 and 25. In verse 25 the verb holal stands, which denotes birth. Verse 22, however, uses the verb kana, which primarily means “to create”, “to form” and only secondarily – “to acquire”.[19] The verb form nasahti in verse 23 is best translated not as “anointed”, but as “woven” or “poured”, including the idea of ​​creation. From the comparison of all these verses it can be concluded, taking into account all the ambiguity and imprecision in the terminology of the Old Testament writer, that he considers Wisdom as a creation, the first of God’s creations, but so close to the Creator that the image of her emergence can be likened to birth. But was it our author’s task to give a consistent theology of the origin of Wisdom?

The main emphasis in this passage is undoubtedly on the teaching of the purpose and role of Wisdom. It is to this that v. 30 ff. is devoted. In the Russian Bible, which follows the Septuagint translation, v. 30 characterizes Wisdom as an artist with God. In the Hebrew text, however, the word of indefinite meaning amon is used here, which the Greek translators read as amman, “performer of the work,” or rather uman, “artist.”[20] Aquila, on the other hand, reads this word as amun – alumus, “child of the womb,” and this is undoubtedly the original reading. This is confirmed by the entire context, which nowhere speaks of any participation of Wisdom in the creation of the world, but depicts her as a little child of God who learns from contemplating God’s creative works and rejoices in their beauty, as well as in the richness of human nature and the activity that lies ahead in the world created by God (vv. 30-31). However, in what does this activity express itself? Wisdom is called exclusively and only to instruct people, to guide them, to give them – in the words of v. 33 – mussar (in the Russian text: “instruction”), i.e. “discipline”, “skill”, “school”. The purpose of this mussar is the acquisition of a life pleasing to God, and along with it the receipt from God of earthly well-being, happiness and long life (8:35-36 and the entire Chapter 9) – all this, in accordance with the concept of retribution inherent in the entire book of Proverbs.

It follows that if we translate the entire above-mentioned teaching of the Old Testament author into our modern theological terminology, then the Divine Wisdom of the book of Proverbs will be something else – like that aspect of the Divine Providence, which can be defined as the teaching action of God. Wisdom is God, Who makes wise and instructs in the right path of life. Which in turn makes it understandable why Divine Wisdom has received hypostatic features in Proverbs 1:9. It is one of the sides of the Divine Revelation in the world. The Old Testament has more than once resorted to personifications of Revelation. In this respect, Wisdom can be related and contrasted with the images frequently found in the biblical books of the “Angel” of Yahweh, of the “Spirit of the Lord” (Isa. 63:7-14), of the word of God (Isa. 55:10-13), of the “name” (Isa. 30:27), etc. All of these are symbolic representations, often in hypostatic features, of one or another aspect of the Divine Revelation, explained by the absence in the ancient Semites of abstract concepts and their replacement by concrete descriptions or living images.[21] From this it becomes clear that everything said in Proverbs 8:24-31 about the way of the origin of Wisdom should be accepted not so much as a testimony to the ontology of the relationship between Wisdom and God, but primarily as a poetic depiction of the competence of Wisdom for her intended role as a mentor to people.

Thus, the Divine Wisdom of the book of Proverbs is not essentially any hypostasis, nor even any ontological principle in God. According to the author’s thought, she is not a mysterious collaborator of God in the work of creating the world. In her image we have an image of the traditional Old Testament way of communicating by God a special charism to man, in response to the latter’s striving for a righteous life. But the Wisdom of the book of Proverbs in no way takes man out of the narrow framework of earthly life – it does not provide him with immortality and does not give him any theoretical knowledge about God or the world. It communicates only moral and practical teaching and guides man in the correct passage of his earthly path. It seems to cast a narrow strip in the world, which far from sanctifies everything, but still does not allow man to deviate from this only path that can lead him to earthly happiness.

However, the Book of Proverbs is only the first monument of God-inspired chomic thought in Israel. This thought had its further development. Can we, in view of this, consider that idea of ​​​​Divine Wisdom and that image of it that we find in the Book of Proverbs as final? Have they received further content, different from this, as well as new features?

3

Following Ecclesiastes, the Book of Job is a celebration of the final rupture of divinely inspired Wisdom with purely human worldly wisdom. It is Job who here reveals the abyss that exists between divine wisdom and the wisdom that – even if it is pious – is devoid of flight, and which has become classic for the Israeli hakamim. The book shows us how this very wisdom, in which the believing mind sought support for its faith, turns against it. By raising this same question of retribution, the author of the Book of Job shows that the relationship between sin and the suffering of misfortunes, on the one hand, and righteousness and well-being in life, on the other, is not as simple as is usually believed (Chapter 6). Of course, for him too, God is always righteous, merciful, and just, but the manifestation of this truth in the life of humanity is something much more mysterious than what was taught, for example, by the prophet Ezekiel, who proclaimed that everyone bears the punishment for his own sins (Ezek. 18:2-4). Job is aware that the explanation of this mystery lies in the power of God alone, and therefore both extreme theocraticism and extreme trust are simultaneously inherent in his consciousness (Job 19:25-27). The practical conclusion of this book lies precisely in the recognition of this twofold mystery of God and the world. Moreover, this mystery is tearing apart for man as long as he turns his gaze only to the world and what is happening in it, but it also calms him and gives him hope as soon as God condescends to him and personally reveals Himself to him.

In the light of these thoughts, the theological orientation of the so-called “Hymn of Wisdom” contained in Chapter 28 of the Book of Job should also be made. We will not dwell on the question of the affiliation of this hymn to the author of the Book of Job, nor on the other, on the displacement of the text of the third cycle of speeches of Job and his friends (chapters 22-31), in which, in the current state of the text, this hymn is located.[22] We will only point out that modern biblical scholarship considers this hymn to be an insertion in the original text of this book, while recognizing that the poem was inserted into the book thanks to its similarity in language and theology with the entire remaining context. Resembling chapters 8-9 of the book of Proverbs, which praise God’s Wisdom, the hymn carries out the doctrine of its transcendence. It is supramundane, as is the God who possesses it. The author of the hymn dwells at length on the astonishing human achievements, especially on the extraction of innumerable treasures in the mines, i.e., from the bowels of the earth (28:1-11). However, he emphasizes that, despite these achievements, man is forced to admit his complete helplessness in the task of acquiring Wisdom: “But where is wisdom found, and where is the place of understanding?” (v. 12). It cannot be found either at the bottom of the sea or at the bottom of the abyss, i.e., in Sheol. It, of course, presupposes the rich experience that has been accumulated by the generations that have already descended into the underworld, but in itself it is not this experience (vv. 13-22). Only the Creator knows it, and again He comes to the aid of man in his helplessness to find Wisdom. However, God does not reveal any secrets to man. He gives him only a rule of conduct that should replace the knowledge that is inaccessible to him: “Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is true wisdom, and to avoid evil is understanding” (v. 28). Moreover, the hymn does not say that this rule of life should ensure happiness for man. And this silence is all the more significant in that it reminds man of his duties before God and is not accompanied by any promises of any rewards for those who fulfill these duties. All this perfectly corresponds to the general religious tone of the entire book. Therefore, the poem about Wisdom leads to the same practical conclusion: to humbly bow before the incomprehensible will of the Almighty and above the world God. However, what does Divine Wisdom itself mean for the author of the hymn and for the entire concept of the Book of Job? First of all, it is an attribute of God.[23] At the same time, however, it is also God’s unattainable plan for the world and for each individual person, and also that law inaccessible to the human mind to which God has subjected the entire world created by Him.

However, in a rather close connection with the hymn from Chapter 28 of the Book of Job is the hymn to Wisdom, found in the non-canonical book of Baruch (3:9-4:4).[24] This hymn is even more remarkable in that in all the chomic literature there is no place closer in its content, style, and general spirit to the prophetic sermon. The authorship of this hymn does not necessarily belong to Jeremiah’s secretary and friend – modern researchers date this excerpt to the 5th century BC, or even earlier.[25] Unlike the classical hakamim, the composer of the hymn is interested not in the destinies of individual individuals, but – like the prophets – in the destinies of entire nations. He does not act like a scribe studying the scriptures, turning to the books of the past in order to draw lessons from the past for his contemporaries, and like the prophets of the pre-exilic period, to discern the divine will for Israel and the other nations revealed through them. He addressed the captive Jews and tried to impress upon them the truth that, having separated themselves from Wisdom, the nations were doomed to destruction. Israel itself would not escape this fate unless it converted. However, the nations that had not received the Revelation would not escape it either, since Wisdom is unfathomable to the human mind (Bar. 3:9-23). Continuing his thought about the necessity and at the same time about the inaccessibility of Wisdom, the author of the hymn, by personifying, like the ancient prophets,[26] the nations under the images of their kings, shows how the kingdoms that once could boast of power, wealth and glory perished and descended into the underworld. The ancient giants did not escape destruction either (v. 26 ff.)[27] – they perished, regardless of all their superhuman knowledge, since even this could not be identified with the true Wisdom, which is beyond all reach. In all this, the author of Bar. 3:9-4:4 remains in the line of Chapter 28 of the Book of Job. Then, like Job, he points out that God has condescended to human weakness and, although He has not revealed to man all the secrets of His Wisdom, He has nevertheless revealed to him that practical conduct by which man can please Him. While Job 28:28, however, limits himself in this regard to the general principle of the fear of God and separation from evil, Bar. 4:1-4 brings out as such a practical rule of life fidelity to the Mosaic law – the sacred possession of God’s chosen Israel.

Here – in the book of Baruch – the chomic thought finally breaks with this “cosmopolitan” wisdom, which does not emphasize any privileges of Israel as God’s people, and which has found its reflection in the book of Proverbs. Bar. 3:29 even contains a reference to the characteristic passage from the book of Deuteronomy (30:11-13) about the impossibility for man to ascend to heaven – to know God’s will – and about the closeness of the Law to him that compensates for this impossibility. Continuing this thought, Bar. 3:36 identifies Wisdom with the Law. The appearance of the latter for Israel thus means the appearance on earth of Wisdom, in its religious-practical aspect. This is precisely what the words of v. 38 of this chapter mean: “… on earth he appeared and dwelt with men.” It is well known what interpretation these words have received among Christian hymnographers and composers of holiday services.[28] But the author of the hymn of Wisdom under consideration does not mean in them only the mercies bestowed by God on Israel in its sacred past. Continuing his thought, the author calls on those who have fallen away from the source of Wisdom, that is, the entire chosen people, to return to the path indicated in the book of God’s commandments, or, what is the same, in the Law, and thereby gain life again (4:1-3). The hymn concludes with words that are a conclusion from the entire proposed teaching about the Torah as religious-practical wisdom: “Happy are we, Israel, because we know what is pleasing to God” (v. 4).

The hymn of Bar. 3:9-4:4 does not contain any indications as to what Divine Wisdom itself is. And yet it is of exceptional importance for the further development of the idea of ​​Wisdom. We have already noted that it marks the rapprochement between chomic and prophetic preaching. It is also evidence of the expansion of the horizon of the Israelite hakamim, since it begins to touch upon historiosophical themes. It shows, as we have already had occasion to note, that the hakamim, who until recently had only pondered the destinies of human individuals, are beginning to raise questions about the destinies of nations. In this respect, this is a great step forward, even in comparison with the more prophetically daring Book of Job. However, this does not yet represent the entry of the doctrine of Wisdom onto the path of true universalism. Parallel to the expansion of the horizon of the hakamim, the passage Bar. 3:9-4:4 marks the strengthening of the positions of Israelite particularism – thanks to the identification of Wisdom with the Torah. Wisdom, as well as the Mosaic Law, thus become privileges of the one and only God-chosen Israel.

Notes:

[1] An attempt to balance these disputes see in: Bulgakov, S. Kupina Neopalimaya, Paris 1927, and in the excursus: “Teaching on the Wisdom of God in Saint Athanasius the Great” – there, pp. 261-288.

[2] See: Florenskyi, P. Stolp and confirmation of Istiny, M. 1990.

[3] See: Devreesse, R. “Chaines exégétiques des Pères grecques” – In: Dictionnaire de la Bible, Suppl. 1, col. 1084-1233.

[4] This is the inconclusiveness of the exegesis of Fr. Sergius Bulgakov in his excursus on the Old Testament teaching on the Wisdom of God (see: Kupina Neopalimaya, pp. 234-260).

[5] For this see: Knyazev, A. “On the Divine Inspiration of Holy Scripture” – In: Pravoslavnaya mysl, 8, 1951, pp. 113-127.

[6] Rowley, H.H. The Old Testament and Modern Study, Oxford 1952., p. 210.

[7] See: Dom Hilaire Duesberg Les Scribes inspires, Vol. 1, Paris 1938.

[8] Ibid., Vol. 1, Ch. 1.

[9] For this see also there, as well as in: Bouyer, L. La Bible et l’Évangile, Paris: “Cerf” 1951, p. 122 sq.

[10] On the Deuteronomic reform, see: Lods, A. Les Prophètes d’Israël et les débuts du Judaïsme, Paris 1951, p. 153 sq.

[11] Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique, t. 13, p. 2, col. 908-935.

[12] Duesberg, H., P. Auvray “Le Livre des Proverbs” – In: La Sainte Bible, traduite en français sous la direction de l’Ecole biblique de Jérusalem, 1951, p. 91 sqq.

[13] Ibid., p. 118, 123.

[14] The connection of the book of Proverbs with ancient wisdom explains why this book does not mention the Sinaitic covenant, the temple, Jerusalem, or the other privileges of Israel as a chosen people. This silence is usually explained by the universalistic thrust of the preaching of the author of this book. The real reason for this, however, lies in the purely secular character of wisdom in Israel in the pre-exilic era, which is reflected in the material used by the author of the book.

[15] For a critical analysis of those passages in Proverbs in which they have sometimes tried to see evidence of a belief in immortality, see Dubarle, A. M. Les Sages d’Israёl, Paris 1946, pp. 46-52.

[16] A summary of all that has been written on this subject can be found in Rowley, H. H. Op. cit., p. 215 sqq.

[17] Helmer Ringgren finds a similar kind of Wisdom in Ahikar: Ringgren, H. Word and Wisdom: Studies in the Hypostatization of divine Qualities and Functions in the ancient Near East, Lund: “H. Ohlssons boktr.” 1947.

[18] This is the literal meaning of the expressions indicating in 8:22-23 the moment of the origin of Wisdom – meloam (“from the age”) means “from ancient times”; the same meaning is also kedem, in Russian “before”, and literally “front side, sunrise, east”, and therefore “antiquity”; merosh (“from the beginning”), in the sense of beginning of counting, of time, etc.

[19] In the Septuagint – “created” (ἔκτισε). Origen, the Vulgate, and before them and Philo of Alexandria propose not the verb κτίζωο – I create, but κτάομαι – “to acquire, to have”. This meaning was adopted in the Russian translation of v. 22.

[20] The Septuagint translated ἁρμόζουσα and hence in the Russian text comes “artist”.

The same follows the Bulgarian translation, edition of the Holy Synod: “artist” (note trans.).

[21] This is shown in the book: Heinisch, P. Personifikationen und Hypostasen im Alten Testament und im Alten Orient, Münster: “Aschendorff” 1921, as well as in the work of the same author: Die persönliche Weisheit des Alten Testaments in religionsgeschichtlicher Beleuchtung, Münster: “Aschendorff” 1926.

[22] On this subject see: Dubarle, A. M. Op. cit., p. 81.

[23] Let us note here that, despite the rather widespread opinion, Chapter 28 of the Book of Job does not contain personifications of Wisdom – it simply speaks of her as some priceless treasure.

[24] The connection of Var. 3-4 with the Book of Job is particularly evident from the following comparisons:

Bar           Job

3:15        28:12

3:31-33  28:13, 21-27

3:34-35  28:27

With the book of Baruch we move on to an analysis of the teaching of Wisdom contained in the non-canonical books. It is known that the Orthodox Church does not equate non-canonical and canonical books in dignity. Yet it considers non-canonical books to be edifying, useful, and uses them in its worship. The non-canonical chochmic writing can be considered as a kind of Holy Scripture, interpreting and deepening the teaching of the canonical chochmic writing. We attempt to explain the relationship of the non-canonical books to the canon in our article: “On the Inspiration of Holy Scripture”.

[25] See: Dubarle, A. M. Op. cit., p. 132.

[26] See: Isa. 14:3-27; Ezek. 28:1-9; 29:1-16; 31-32; Dan. 7-8.

[27] Perhaps this is a reference to Gen. 6:4 and to the popular interpretation of this passage, which is used in the apocryphal book of Enoch (6 – 10:3; 16:3-4).

[28] Sometimes biblical scholars assume that these words were interpolated in the Christian era. In any case, here is the exact meaning of these words: then, that is, at the time of the giving of the Law, Wisdom appeared on earth and dwelt among men. Even in its literal understanding, this passage continues to be prefiguratively related to the mystery of the manifestation of Christ.

Source in Russian: Knyazev, A. “The Concept and Image of Divine Wisdom in the Old Testament” – In: Orthodox Thought, 10, Paris, 1955, pp. 92-112.

(to be continued)