Gambling and Games in Ancient Rome

Like people today, the ancient Romans were passionate about gambling and games. Despite the vast span of time separating our era from theirs, certain weaknesses and habits have not changed much. The Roman love for gambling and games is legendary, with evidence—both written and archaeological—found everywhere. Of course, ancient games and gambling differed from their modern counterparts, though there are strong indications that some games have remained largely unchanged. But why were gambling and betting so popular in Ancient Rome?

The explanation is simple: betting and games of chance—known to the Romans as *alea*—occupied a significant part of their leisure time. They remained consistently popular due to the emotions stirred by winning or losing. The adrenaline rush created an illusion of victory that could easily escalate into addiction.

Gambling was a favorite pastime across all social strata in Ancient Rome, enjoyed by rich and poor, patricians and plebeians alike. As with many other forms of entertainment or activity in antiquity, however, only men were permitted to gamble or place bets. Women were barred from such activities, with the sole exception of the Bona Dea festival—an event held in honor of the goddess associated with the fertility of Roman women. During this period, one could see women behaving just like men—betting, drinking, and shouting with adrenaline-fueled excitement. As an organized and disciplined civilization, the Romans engaged in gambling in specially designated areas—a practice strikingly similar to modern habits. These were the well-known taverns, which featured specific spots where a Roman could place bets undisturbed; after all, a hearty meal was often followed by a round of gambling. Betting and games of chance also took place in wealthy households—a common occurrence rather than an anomaly.

The pride of Rome—its army—was also not immune to the vice of gambling. Numerous archaeological finds from various military camps, such as Vindolanda (in present-day Great Britain), provide evidence of dice games. Dice boxes were part of the standard kit for soldiers and officers, serving as a source of entertainment during quieter moments.

The dice box was typically made of wood; it was used to cast the dice, thereby preventing player interference and eliminating the risk of cheating. While dice were usually crafted from animal bone, amber versions also existed. The most famous dice game was *Tali*, which bears a strong resemblance to poker. It utilized the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 6, with each player rolling four dice. Depending on the outcome, a roll could be “Venus” (the best possible result) or “the Dog” (the worst). Beyond dice, Ancient Rome offered a variety of other gambling games to suit every taste—such as the board games *Ludus Latrunculorum*, *Tabula Lusoria*, or simply *Tabula*. *Ludus* was a game resembling chess, played with two colors of pieces (black and white). These pieces represented two opposing armies, and some of them moved in ways familiar to modern chess players. *Tabula Lusoria* was played on a circular wooden board divided into eight sections; each player had three pieces they attempted to arrange in a specific formation.

*Tabula* is a game strikingly similar to modern backgammon—even the name remains the same. Its rules were unclear until the 19th century, when they were reconstructed thanks to an epigram written by Emperor Zeno himself (proving that emperors, too, were human and often addicted to such games) and the writings of the Late Antique author Agathias.

It is impossible to overlook the prevalence of gambling and betting among the Romans, as numerous ancient authors—including Ovid, Seneca, Isidore of Seville, Suetonius, Martial, and Cicero—mention the practice. Gambling gave rise to peculiar traditions in Rome, such as the exchange of gifts during Saturnalia; a surviving epigram records the aforementioned author Martial sending a special set of game pieces to Juvenal. As previously noted, betting and gaming were enjoyed by all social classes in Rome—even children took part, though their games were, of course, far more innocent and free of serious consequences. For their games, they used the tokens mentioned by Martial, known as *nuces* (nuts). These tokens acquired the name *saturnaliciae* due to the famous pagan festival. Here is what Martial wrote to Juvenal when sending him these tokens: “*De nostro, facunde, tibi Juvenalis, agello Saturnalitias mittimus, ecce, nuces*”—literally translated: “From our little estate, eloquent Juvenal, I send you these Saturnalian ‘nuts’ (tokens)!” (Epigr. VII, 91). Another curious epitaph was discovered near the mausoleum of Lucia Polla in Rome, along the Via Salaria. The inscription tells of a freedman who was evidently passionate about gambling. Consequently, the Latin phrase “*AD NVCEM*”—meaning “near the place where the *nuces* game is played”—was inscribed on his tomb. This testified to his strong attachment to such games during his lifetime. The Late Antique historian and bishop Isidore of Seville also mentions the *tabula*—a game board resembling modern backgammon.

Gambling and betting represent a significant phenomenon; not only do many authors write about them, but they also appear in frescoes—such as those found in Pompeii, where we see several different depictions illustrating the game’s evolution. There is also a mural showing three players at a round table with game pieces. We have already mentioned Emperor Zeno’s fondness for board games, but this was not an isolated case; it was a trend among emperors. Dating back to the Principate, Suetonius writes that Octavian Augustus enjoyed games so much that he actively encouraged them—even involving relatives and friends—and would wager as much as 250 denarii (a silver Roman coin). Caligula frequently played for high stakes, and to settle his debts, he would confiscate the property of his soldiers and officers.

Nero, too, had no qualms about wagering large sums; according to Suetonius, Claudius adored dice games and even wrote a book on the principles of play titled *De arte aleae*. Commodus, the last representative of the glorious Antonine dynasty, was no different from his predecessors regarding his gambling habits; his addiction was so intense that he effectively transformed the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill into an ancient Monte Carlo. Emperor Domitian was always ready to roll the dice, even during the morning hours. Historical sources identify Lucius Verus as the most inveterate gambler among the emperors; he established a tavern within his palace and, upon returning from a military campaign in Syria, would immediately begin playing—often going without sleep and consuming “low-quality food and drink” in the process.

In antiquity, gambling and betting were viewed as a sign of moral degradation, yet the practice persisted. Sporadic attempts were made to ban it, though these proved ineffective. Laws were enacted in an effort to prohibit or at least regulate the activity. One such measure was the *Lex Alearia* (the earliest known law on the subject), dating back to 204 BC. The *Lex Alearia* prohibited dice games but permitted other types of games during meals. The same law allowed for unrestricted play during the Saturnalia festival, a time when other prohibitions were also lifted. The *Lex Cornelia*, enacted in 81 BC—likely authored by Sulla—attempted to ban gaming because Romans tended to display their extravagant nature while gambling. The *Lex Titia* and *Lex Publicia* restricted gaming to the duration of sporting events; under these laws, betting was permitted during gladiatorial contests or chariot races, but gambling and wagering were prohibited at all other times of the year. Penalties included imprisonment, exile, or a fine, and a conviction carried the stigma of disgrace.

Despite attempts at regulation and prohibition, gambling activities did not diminish—quite the opposite—which explains the laws’ lack of effectiveness. It was not until the reign of Emperor Justinian that a new legislative attempt was made to ban gambling and betting. This law permitted only games of skill (likely referring to board games) and imposed a fixed maximum stake. This demonstrates that laws could be highly flexible when necessary, restricting betting under very strict conditions. While the consequences of this Late Antique law remain unclear, a decline in betting did occur.

However, this was due less to the effectiveness of the laws than to the growing spread of Christianity; indeed, throughout the 6th century, there were still many places where paganism was practiced in secret. Medieval manuscripts demonstrate that even religion could not entirely stamp out gambling, which persisted within the army—particularly during military campaigns—and in secret among closed communities. The intense adrenaline rush generated by board games proved too alluring for the inhabitants of the Roman Empire to ignore. Many of these games have come down to us, albeit having undergone some transformation; to this day, we still play and feel the thrill of backgammon, chess, and other games known since antiquity.